Throughout history, people have sought ways to navigate the complexities of life, face adversity with strength, and find a sense of purpose and fulfilment.
One ancient philosophy that has withstood the test of time and continues to resonate with people today is Stoicism.
Rooted in the teachings of ancient Greek and Roman philosophers, Stoicism offers invaluable wisdom on self-mastery, resilience and the path to a good life.
Stoicism originated in ancient Greece and became highly influential during the Roman Empire. Its central belief is that virtue is the only good and that the wise person will not be perturbed by misfortune or pain.
Stoics also believe that the key to happiness and inner peace lies in recognising and accepting things beyond our control and focusing instead on cultivating our internal values.
The stoic worldview was heavily influenced by the ideas of determinism and rationality. Stoics believed that the world is governed by a rational order, which they referred to as the “Logos” or divine reason.
They viewed everything as interconnected and believed human beings should align their actions with this universal order.
Through Stoicism people learn to navigate the complexities and stress of life with calm, finding solace in the pursuit of virtue and personal growth.
The philosophical foundation of Stoicism can be traced back to the teachings of Socrates, Plato, and the earlier Cynic philosophers. However, Stoicism introduced distinct concepts and ideas that can be applied in our modern world.
The founder of Stoicism, Zeno of Citium was influenced by the teachings of Socrates. Zeno emphasised the importance of living in accordance with nature and developing personal virtue as the ultimate goal of life.
He developed a philosophy that emphasised the importance of reason, self-control, resilience and living in the present. “Steel your sensibilities, so that life shall hurt you as little as possible,” he said.
Zeno thought, “Man conquers the world by conquering himself.”
Stoicism was further developed by Zeno’s successors, Cleanthes and Chrysippus. These philosophers refined the Stoic teachings and helped spread Stoicism throughout the Roman Empire.
Stoicism’s principles were not limited to abstract philosophical musings but focused on practical wisdom and ethical living. The Stoics aimed to provide guidance on how to navigate life’s challenges and cultivate inner tranquillity and virtue.
Some of the most famous Stoics include Seneca, Epictetus, and Marcus Aurelius. Seneca was a Roman statesman and philosopher who wrote extensively on Stoicism.
Epictetus was enslaved but freed by his master. He then became a Stoic philosopher. Marcus Aurelius was the Roman emperor who wrote the Meditations, a collection of his personal thoughts on Stoicism.
Throughout its history, Stoicism underwent various developments and adaptations. Seneca, Epictetus, and Marcus Aurelius made significant contributions to the philosophy.
The philosophy continued to influence Roman society and was often embraced by individuals seeking guidance for personal conduct and leadership.
The cardinal virtues
“What is the goal of virtue, after all, except a life that flows smoothly? Epictetus asks.
Stoicism emphasises the development of wisdom, courage, justice, and temperance as the cardinal virtues that should guide our actions and decisions. These four virtues were seen as essential for achieving eudaimonia, a state of flourishing and happiness.
Wisdom is seeking truth, understanding the nature of things, and applying rationality to one’s judgments and decisions. Courage is the ability to face challenges and adversity with resilience and inner strength.
Justice entails treating others fairly, acting virtuously towards society, and recognising the interconnectedness of all human beings. Temperance emphasises moderation, self-control, and the avoidance of excess in desires and pleasures.
“I say that virtue is more valuable than wealth to the same degree that eyes are more valuable than fingernails,” writes Epictetus.
The Stoics believed that the key to living a fulfilled and meaningful life is cultivating virtue and attaining inner peace. They viewed external goods, such as wealth, fame, and pleasure, as relatively insignificant compared to the development of one’s moral character.
“Extravagance is its own destroyer,” says Zeno.
They argue that we can find meaning and satisfaction and navigate the ups and downs of life with grace and integrity, regardless of external circumstances, when we pursue a virtuous life.
Stoicism has had a profound influence on Western thought. Many religious and philosophical traditions have adopted its teachings, which remain relevant today.
One of the central teachings of Stoicism is the dichotomy of control. At its core, Stoicism invites us to recognise that while we may not have control over external events, we possess the power to shape our responses and attitudes.
It teaches us to focus on what lies within our sphere of influence — our thoughts, beliefs, and actions — rather than being consumed by external circumstances beyond our control.
“You have power over your mind — not outside events. Realise this, and you will find strength, writes Aurelius.
The dichotomy of control can be a helpful tool for dealing with stress and anxiety. When faced with a difficult situation, we can ask ourselves, “Is this something that I can control?” If the answer is no, we must let go of it and focus on the things we can control.
Stoics believe that pain or suffering is inevitable, so they focus on what they can control: their thoughts and actions. “Make the best use of what is in your power, and take the rest as it happens,” Epictetus said.
Resilience is also a central pillar of Stoic philosophy. It emphasises the importance of developing mental fortitude and emotional strength to endure life’s inevitable trials and tribulations.
Stoicism empowers people to confront challenges with composure, adaptability, and unwavering resolve. It encourages us to embrace discomfort, viewing it as an opportunity for growth rather than a source of suffering. Stoics seek to transform setbacks into catalysts for personal development, resilience, and a more meaningful life.
Adversity is an inherent part of the human experience. Instead of worrying about obstacles, they focus on the here and now to experience life fully.
Stoics emphasise the importance of focusing on our present experiences rather than dwelling on the past or worrying about the future.
They believed that the present moment is the only reality we have control over, and by fully engaging with it, we can make the most of our lives and find tranquility.
“True happiness is to enjoy the present, without anxious dependence upon the future, not to amuse ourselves with either hopes or fears but to rest satisfied with what we have, which is sufficient, for he that is so wants nothing,” writes Seneca.
Stoicism as a guide to the good life
The pursuit of a good life is the ultimate goal of Stoicism. For the Stoics, the concept of a “good life” was closely tied to the notion of eudaimonia, which can be translated as “flourishing” or “fulfillment.”
Eudaimonia was seen as the ultimate aim and the highest good a person can strive for. It was believed to be achieved through the cultivation and practice of virtue.
According to Stoicism, a good life is guided by reason, virtue, and moral excellence. It is a life lived in accordance with nature and the principles of wisdom, courage, justice, and moderation.
Stoicism promotes a mindset of indifference towards external circumstances and material possessions. Stoics taught that true life satisfaction does not depend on wealth, status, or external success. Instead, they emphasised the importance of inner virtues and moral character as the foundation of a good life.
Therefore, placing your happiness solely on external goods would lead to disappointment and frustration. Instead, the Stoics encouraged people to focus on developing their character, maintaining inner tranquillity, and accepting what they can’t influence.
They believe true happiness lies in cultivating the four cardinal principles: courage, justice, wisdom, and temperance.
Stoics advocated for practicing self-discipline and self-control. They believed in minimising desires and attachments to external pleasures and comforts. Train yourself to be content with less and not be overly dependent on material things to cultivate inner strength and resilience.
Stoicism often emphasises the contemplation of mortality and the transient nature of life. The practice of “memento mori” involves regularly reflecting on the inevitability of death.
“I cannot escape death, but at least I can escape the fear of it,” says Marcus Aurelius. The awareness of our own mortality inspires a sense of urgency, gratitude for life, and a focus on what truly matters.
“Life is long, if you know how to use it,” says Seneca.
Stoics also emphasised the notion of “living in accordance with nature.” They believed that a rational order governs the world and that individuals should align their actions with this cosmic harmony.
To find inner calm and freedom from emotional disturbances, Stoicism teaches us to accept the inevitability of change and focus on what is within our control. “The more we value things outside our control, the less control we have,” Aurelius said.
In summary, Stoicism originated in Athens, Greece, in the 3rd century BCE, founded by Zeno of Citium. It grew in popularity due to its practical wisdom and ethical teachings, with subsequent Stoic philosophers building upon its foundation.
It emphasises cultivating personal virtues (wisdom, courage, justice and temperance), focusing on our circle of influence, living in harmony with nature and aligning our actions with the rational order of the universe.
Stoicism’s influence extended beyond its original time and place, defining the philosophical teachings for centuries to come.
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